{"id":15040,"date":"2023-04-28T06:51:30","date_gmt":"2023-04-28T04:51:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/thesmartcityjournal.cibeles.net\/sin-categoria\/radioactive-waste-recycling-towards-a-sustainable-future\/"},"modified":"2023-04-28T06:56:44","modified_gmt":"2023-04-28T04:56:44","slug":"radioactive-waste-recycling-towards-a-sustainable-future","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.thesmartcityjournal.com\/en\/sustainability\/radioactive-waste-recycling-towards-a-sustainable-future","title":{"rendered":"Radioactive waste: Recycling towards a sustainable future"},"content":{"rendered":"

Integrating the concepts of Radioactive Waste Management with Life Cycle Analysis towards a circular economy<\/p>\n

Radioactive waste is a by-product from nuclear reactors, fuel processing plants, hospitals, and research facilities. It is also generated while decommissioning and dismantling nuclear reactors and other nuclear facilities. Radioactive waste comes from many sources, including nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear power generation, nuclear decommissioning, rare earth mining, and nuclear weapons reprocessing.1,2<\/sup><\/p>\n

In France, the classification is done based on two parameters:3<\/sup><\/p>\n

1) The level of radioactivity:<\/strong>
The level of radioactivity in radioactive waste is usually expressed in Becquerel (Bq) per gram or kilogram. There are four different activity levels for radioactive waste: high-level activity (HA), mid-level activity (MA), low-level activity (FA), and very low-level activity (TFA). Very-low-level activity waste ranges from 0 to 100 Bq\/g, and the subsequent categories have initial activities increasing by (typically) three orders of magnitude for each of the categories. Thus, low-level wastes range from 100-100,000 Bq\/g, intermediate-level wastes range from 100,000-100,000,000 Bq\/g, and high-level wastes exceed 108<\/sup> Bq\/g.1,3<\/sup><\/p>\n

2) The half-life:<\/strong>
Half-life, expressed in years, days, minutes or seconds, quantifies the time at which the initial activity of a radionuclide is halved. The half-life threshold is defined by the half-life of Cs-137 and is thus set at 31 years. Waste is distinguished by which main radionuclides have a short period (less than or equal to 31 years) and those of a long period (greater than 31 years). For the former, it is generally considered that the radioactivity is greatly attenuated after ten periods, i.e. about 300 years.<\/p>\n

Radioactive metallic waste refers to radioactive waste that contains metal components. During decommissioning of nuclear power plants (NPPs), mainly two types of radioactive metal waste are generated, such as volumetric radioactivity induced by neutron activation of certain elements in reactor components such as reactor pressure vessel (RPV) and adjacent structure; and surface radioactivity deposited on surfaces of various out-of-core components.4<\/sup> A significant fraction of the metallic wastes are out-of-core reactor components, such as heat transport pipes and heat exchanger tubes. Different types of metals are used in the construction of NPPs, including stainless steels (SS), carbon steels, and Ni-alloys.<\/p>\n

Metals can get contaminated in a nuclear reactor through various ways, such as corrosion, radiation damage, and neutron activation. Corrosion in nuclear reactors can occur due to exposure of metals to high temperature, pressure, and corrosive chemicals in the reactor environment.5<\/sup> Corrosion Products (CP) are metallic elements (cobalt, iron, nickel, etc.) directly released under an activated form or which are activated when passing under neutron flux. The main CP responsible for dose rates are 60<\/sup>Co and 58<\/sup>Co, the others are 51<\/sup>Cr, 54<\/sup>Mn, 59<\/sup>Fe.6,7<\/sup> These products lie in the corrosion layers of the metals, and the decontamination of these metals generally involves the removal of the corrosion layers on the surface of the metal with minimal attack of the base metal.<\/p>\n

There are several methods for decontaminating radioactive waste metals, such as chemical reagent decontamination, laser decontamination, and electrocoagulation.8<\/sup> One such decontamination method using chemical reagents is the Chemical Oxidation Reduction Decontamination (CORD) process, which is a worldwide-known, two-step decontamination process.9-11<\/sup> In the first step, permanganate ion (MnO4<\/sub>-) is used to oxidise the chromium oxide-layer and to release chromate ions.9,12<\/sup> In the next step, oxalic acid is added to reduce the permanganate ion to aqueous Mn2+<\/sup> ions and to dissolve the Fe and Ni-enriched oxide layer from the surface of the alloys.9,12<\/sup> The whole process is presented in Fig. 2, with each step lasting between three to six hours and can be repeated several times.<\/p>\n

The solutions can then be treated with ion exchange resin to extract the dissolved metals14<\/sup> or can undergo a precipitation process to precipitate the metals and reduce the use of resins, further reducing radioactive waste,9<\/sup> whereas the remaining oxalic acid is destroyed by the addition of H2<\/sub>O2<\/sub> in the presence of UV\/heating.<\/p>\n

Decontamination activities tend to generate large volumes of radioactive waste, liquid waste in the CORD process, and therefore aligning the concepts of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) with decontamination would promote a sustainable solution. LCA is a method used to evaluate the environmental impact of a product through its life cycle, encompassing extraction and processing of the raw materials, manufacturing, distribution, use, recycling, and final disposal.15,16<\/sup><\/p>\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \n
  1. \u201cThe Geological Society of London \u2013 Geological Disposal of Radioactive Waste.\u201d www.geolsoc.org.uk<\/a> (accessed Mar. 12, 2020)<\/li>\n
  2. USNRC, \u201cBackgrounder on Radioactive Waste.\u201d www.nrc.gov<\/a> (accessed Apr. 04, 2023)<\/li>\n
  3. ANDRA, \u201cWaste classification.\u201d www.international-andra.fr<\/a> (accessed Apr. 04, 2023)<\/li>\n
  4. W. H. Lee and J. H. Cheong, \u201cPotential radiological hazard and options to cope with consequences from recycling of activated metal waste disposed of at a near-surface disposal facility,\u201d Ann. Nucl. Energy<\/em>, vol. 152, p. 107993, Mar. 2021, doi: 10.1016\/j.anucene.2020.107993<\/li>\n
  5. T. Do et al<\/em>., \u201cMethodology for volume reduction of radioactive metallic waste,\u201d Radwaste Solutions<\/em>. https:\/\/www.ans.org<\/a> (accessed Apr. 04, 2023)<\/li>\n
  6. T. F. J. Marchl, Occupational radiation exposures in Siemens designed PWRs. France: Societe Francaise d\u2019Energie Nucleaire., 1994<\/li>\n
  7. B. C. Friedrich, \u201cReduction of cobalt 60 inventory in light water reactors,\u201d Kerntechnik<\/em>, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 109\u2013113<\/li>\n
  8. L. Zhong, J. Lei, J. Deng, Z. Lei, L. Lei, and X. Xu, \u201cExisting and potential decontamination methods for radioactively contaminated metals-A Review,\u201d Prog. Nucl. Energy<\/em>, vol. 139, p. 103854, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.1016\/j.pnucene.2021.103854<\/li>\n
  9. A. Rivonkar et al<\/em>., \u201cOptimisation of the chemical oxidation reduction process (CORD) on surrogate stainless steel in regards to its efficiency and secondary wastes,\u201d Front. Nucl. Eng<\/em>., vol. 1, 2022, doi: 10.3389\/fnuen.2022.1080954<\/li>\n
  10. 10. K. Rad\u00f3 et al<\/em>., \u201cA systematic study of the corrosion effects of the FRAMATOME CORD-UV technology,\u201d Acad. Appl. Res. Mil. Sci.<\/em>, vol. 3, pp. 171\u2013175, 2004<\/li>\n
  11. H. Wille, H. O. Bertholdt, and F. Roumiguiere, \u201cChemical decontamination with the CORD UV process: principle and field experience,\u201d presented at the Fourth Regional Meeting: Nuclear Energy in Central Europe, Slovenia, Slovenia, 1997<\/li>\n
  12. Z. Tian, L. Song, and X. Li, \u201cEffect of Oxidizing Decontamination Process on Corrosion Property of 304L Stainless Steel,\u201d Int. J. Corros.<\/em>, vol. 2019, pp. 1\u20136, Aug. 2019, doi: 10.1155\/2019\/1206098<\/li>\n
  13. Decommissioning and Radioactive Waste Processing: Hitachi-GE Nuclear Energy, Ltd.\u201d https:\/\/www.hitachi-hgne.co.jp\/en\/activities\/waste_treatment\/index.html<\/a> (accessed Apr. 05, 2023)<\/li>\n
  14. D. O. Campbell, D. D. Lee, and T. A. Dillow, \u201cIon-exchange processes for low-level liquid waste treatment,\u201d in Proceedings of the international meeting on nuclear and hazardous waste management<\/em>, United States, 1990. doi: 10.2172\/6036184<\/li>\n
  15. \u201cLife Cycle Analysis \u2013 an overview | ScienceDirect Topics.\u201d https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/earth-and-planetary-sciences\/life-cycle-analysis<\/a> (accessed Apr. 05, 2023)<\/li>\n
  16. US EPA, \u201cLife Cycle Assessment (LCA), Sustainable Technology Research.\u201d http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nrmrl\/std\/lca\/lca.html<\/a> (accessed Apr. 05, 2023)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    Please note, this article will also appear in the fourteenth edition of our <\/em>quarterly publication<\/em><\/a>.<\/em> https:\/\/www.innovationnewsnetwork.com<\/em><\/p><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    Integrating the concepts of Radioactive Waste Management with Life Cycle Analysis towards a circular economy Radioactive waste is a by-product from nuclear reactors, fuel processing plants, hospitals, and research facilities. It is also generated while decommissioning and dismantling nuclear reactors and other nuclear facilities. Radioactive waste comes from many sources, including nuclear medicine, nuclear research,\u2026<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":15039,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_scj_primary_category_id":60,"_scj_featured":false,"_scj_featured_from":"","_scj_featured_until":"","_scj_featured_order":0,"_scj_visibility_class":"current","_scj_layout_family":"standard","_scj_article_style":"","_scj_display_overrides":[],"_scj_intro_image_id":15039,"_scj_intro_alt":"Radioactive waste: Recycling towards a sustainable future","_scj_intro_caption":"","_scj_intro_class":"","_scj_intro_float":"","_scj_full_image_id":15039,"_scj_full_alt":"Radioactive waste: Recycling towards a sustainable future","_scj_full_caption":"","_scj_full_class":"","_scj_full_float":"","_scj_media_type":"","_scj_media_provider":"","_scj_media_external_id":"","_scj_media_url":"","_scj_media_poster_id":0,"_scj_media_width":0,"_scj_media_height":0,"_scj_media_aspect_ratio":"","_scj_media_description":"","_scj_gallery_items":[],"_scj_related_post_ids":[],"_scj_additional_authors":[],"scj_layout_family":"standard","scj_media_provider":"","scj_media_url":"","scj_full_caption":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[60],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-15040","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-sustainability"],"yoast_head":"\nRadioactive waste: Recycling towards a sustainable future - thesmartcityjournal.com<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Radioactive waste is a by-product from nuclear reactors, fuel processing plants, hospitals, and research facilities. 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